In all cultures of the world, there was and still is a drinking culture in addition to an eating culture. Wine in particular has always been more than just a stimulant, but also a medicine, an antiseptic, an aphrodisiac, a preservative, a comforter, a source of strength, a medium of inspiration, a symbol of sacrifice, a component of rituals, festivals and contracts, and in many religions a sacred medium that was used to establish a mystical relationship with God or the gods.
In the "Codex Hammurabi", a collection of laws written by the Babylonian king Hammurabi (1728-1686 B.C.), which according to Sumerian tradition is based on an inspiration from the sun god Šamaš, it says: Wine is one of the most precious gifts on earth. So it demands love and respect, and we have to show it respect. However, beer was probably the first alcoholic beverage brewed in the early advanced civilisations even before wine, at least more than 6,000 years ago. Mesopotamia, Transcaucasia and/or, according to the latest research, south-eastern Anatolia in today's Turkey, bordering Armenia with the famous Mount Ararat, where the biblical Noah is said to have landed, are regarded as the cradle of viticulture.
The popular saying about wine "In vino veritas" (In wine lies the truth), originating from the Greek lyric poet Alcaeus (7th century B.C.), superficially expresses that one speaks the truth under the influence of wine (alcohol) because it is associated with a reduction of inhibitions. Wine (enjoyed in moderation) simply also helps to change one's attitude. One is much more willing to give in to one's emotions and is more open and communicative, which (always assuming that one enjoys wine with understanding) can have a very positive effect in the interpersonal sphere. However, there is one cross-cultural rule, and that is the social rejection of solitary alcohol consumption. Positively understood alcohol consumption is considered a social activity to establish human contacts and maintain communication. However, those who drink or enjoy alcohol alone are usually considered antisocial and are also suspected of being drunkards.
Alcohol was often consumed in an excessive manner. For intoxication was regarded by many ancient peoples as a special state that enabled direct contact with a higher world and had a religious and mystical character. In Egypt, for example, pharaohs and priests drank to the point of intoxication on feast days, and the unconsciousness that occurred after excessive consumption was considered holy and pleasing to God. The Jewish prophets gave oracles in an ecstatic state, according to 1 Samuel 10.5. In the mysticism of Islamic Sufism and in shamanism, the intoxication of the priest plays an important role. The Greek Pythia gave oracles through intoxication induced by earth vapours. The wine of Cleopatra (69-30 BC) was spiked with raw opium and nightshade plants (henbane, mandrake) and was considered an aphrodisiac.
According to the Greek historian Herodotus (482-425 BC), alcoholic intoxication was deliberately used by the Persians under the Achaimenid dynasty (559-331 BC) to discuss and judge important issues and to decide afterwards. The intention was to switch off reason, promote creativity and casually discuss arguments and counter-arguments; intoxication served to disinhibit. The decisions taken, however, had to be confirmed once again in a sober state (or vice versa). Only then did they become valid and have the force of law. Herodotus also reports about the Greek symposia (drinking parties), which also aimed at a certain level of drunkenness. However, this was done in moderation and in a controlled manner by serving limited amounts of wine mixed with water.
Even in early antiquity, Greeks and Romans produced an amazing variety of wines. Many ancient authors described in detail vineyard cultivation and winemaking, as well as the eating and drinking habits of their time. Among the best known are the works listed below, which have their own keywords:
In the 15-volume work "Deiphnosophistai" (Guest Banquet of the Scholars), the Greek author Athenaeus (end of the 2nd and beginning of the 3rd century A.D.) comedically describes the guest banquet with the wines enjoyed at it by 29 famous scholars, advocates and the famous physician Galen (129-216) in ancient Rome.
Several ancient authors wrote textbooks on agriculture under this title (On Rural Affairs), some of them with extensive reference to viticulture.
This work, written around 950, contains contributions by ancient authors such as Columella (1st century), Pliny the Elder (23-79) and Virgil (70-19 BC) on agriculture, food and drinking culture of their time.
In it, the Roman poet Petronius (14-66) describes a sometimes grotesque moral picture of social conditions in Rome as well as the eating and drinking culture of the Roman upper class in the first century AD.
The clergyman Johann Rasch (1540-1612) worked as an organist at the Schottenstift in Vienna (Austria) and wrote one of the oldest wine books in the German language, which was first published in 1580. It contains rules, regulations and advice on viticulture, cellar management, wine storage and wine tasting.
Complete lists of well-known wine authors and important persons related to viticulture from ancient to modern times are included under the keywords literature, viticultural personalities and wine critics.
In Greece, festivals held in honour of the god Dionysus were introduced in the 5th century BC. They were characterised by exuberance and licentiousness combined with stylised and heavy drinking. The aim was intoxication as a purifying ceremonial with psycho-hygienic effects. The Romans adopted this from the Greeks with the boisterous festivities named Bacchanalia after the wine god Bacchus. The consumption of alcoholic beverages is still regulated today in many religions with rituals and ceremonies and culminates in the Eucharist in the Christian churches with the transformation of the bread into Christ's body and the mass wine into Christ's blood. The central importance of viticulture and wine in the Christian religion is attested to by 979 passages in the Bible that refer to it.
The balance or the border between pleasure (lust) and vice (alcoholism) has always moved people. In antiquity, many well-known personalities warned against abuse. The Roman poet Seneca (4 BC-65 AD) wrote: As in freedom, so in wine moderation is salutary. And in his writing "On Tranquillity" he remarks: "Sometimes it may even come to a little noise, not that it drowns us, but that it submerges us. For this frightens away worries, stirs up the soul in its depths and is a remedy for sadness as well as for many diseases. In the early Middle Ages, regular intoxication was seen as a means of cleansing the body of spent spirits, renewing itself and thus serving health. Due to the poor quality of water, much more alcohol was drunk than today. Wine and beer were considered food, and regular alcohol consumption was considered normal. The picture shows the painting "Drinking Party" by the sociocritical English painter William Hogarth (1697-1764).
However, there were already efforts in the early Middle Ages to curb excessive carousing, which was often accompanied by violent confrontations. This was not limited to the commoner classes; apart from that, alcoholic beverages could often only be afforded by the nobility. Significantly, before being crowned in Rome, every German emperor was asked the question: Will you, with God's help, keep yourself sober? Charlemagne (742-814) issued prohibitions against compulsory drinking at parties. The Church in particular railed against excessive alcohol consumption, though this was less for health reasons than mainly because of the moral decay that accompanied it. The custom of drinking to excess was very popular among all classes. Prominent clergymen such as the reformer Martin Luther (1483-1546), as well as Johann Rasch (1540-1612) and Abraham a Sancta Clara (1644-1709) fought against it in speech and writing.
In many countries it is customary to drink alcohol on festive occasions. In some, such as France, Greece, Italy and Spain, it is even part of everyday life, meaning that alcohol is served even without a special occasion. In the sphere of influence of Islam, on the other hand, alcohol is absolutely forbidden. But also in Western culture, attempts have been and are still being made to curb consumption through various prohibition measures. Alcohol in moderation, however, also has positive effects. Wine has always inspired artists in their creative work. Countless poems, songs, aphorisms, anedotes and quotations about wine exist in all countries.
Hammurabi Stele: From Mbzt - Own work, CC BY 3.0, Link
Hammurabi stele headboard: By I, Sailko, CC BY 2.5, Link
Mass wine cup: demarco / 123RF Royalty Free Images
Petronius: By P. Bodart - GoogleBooks, Public Domain, Link
Roman feast: By Roberto Bompiani - J. Paul Getty Museum, Public Domain, Link
Symposion: Public Domain, Link
Grapes, chalice, bread: Author = demarco / 123RF Royalty Free Images
Priest with host: João Geraldo Borges Júnior on Pixabay
Nocturnal drinking bout: By William Hogarth, Public domain, Link
Prohibition: Authentic History
The Wine lexicon helps me to keep up to date and refresh my knowledge. Thank you for this Lexicon that will never end in terms of topicality! That's what makes it so exciting to come back often.
Thorsten Rahn
Restaurantleiter, Sommelier, Weindozent und Autor; Dresden